According to Morrison et al, there are nine key elements to instructional design:

1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program.
2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instructional message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

These elements are independent of each other, in that they do not need to be considered in a linear fashion and there is no particular start- and end point. The oval shape of this model (see Figure 1) is constructed to convey the idea that the design and development process is an iterative cycle that needs constant planning, design, development and assessment to ensure effective instruction.

Figure 1. The Morrison-Ross-Kemp Model
[Click to enlarge]

The model is systemic and nonlinear; it encourages designers to work in all areas of ID as appropriate. The use of ovals emphasizes this flexibility visually; the graphical design communicates a continuous non-linear cycle that requires iterative planning, design, development and assessment.  The inner oval (surrounding the core) illustrates that revision/formative evaluation activities can be undertaken at each stage of the development process, something that is not always built into other models, usually because of the constraints of time and money.

The outer oval includes a typical post-instruction activity (summative evaluation) and also highlights three elements usually absent from other models – namely project planning, project management, and support services. The latter are required both for the project itself while it is in development, and afterwards to support the actual instruction.

We can say that it describes a holistic approach to instructional design that considers all factors in the environment; the starting point and order in which the designer addresses them is not prescribed, though the elements in the model may form a logical design sequence when read anti-clockwise (see Figure 2).

Figure 1. The ADDIE steps applied to the M-R-K Model
(after Morrison, Ross & Kemp 2004, p.29)
[Click to enlarge]

The flexibility of this approach is reinforced by the absence of lines or arrows that would dictate a specific design sequence (see Dick and Carey’s Model) as a comparison. According to Presenera (2002) the Kemp Model is designed to primarily to appeal to (classroom-based) teachers, who may not have specific instructional design experience.

The Morrison-Ross-Kemp model has three characteristics that differentiate it from some other models:

• instruction is considered from the perspective of the learner
• the model takes a general systems or even object-oriented view towards instructional development
• the model emphasizes management of the instructional design process

Using the model

Using this model the instructional designer begins by asking six questions related to the skills or knowledge to be learned: required level of learner readiness; instructional strategies and media that are be most appropriate for the content and the target population; level of learner support required; measurement of achievement; and strategies for formative and summative evaluation.

(Morrison, Ross, and Kemp, 2004, p. 4).

Because of the lack of connectivity between elements and the facility for IDs to start at any place within the model, a designer can examine the entire scope of a project – or just as effectively work on a single learning object or lesson. Using this classroom-oriented model, an individual with little instructional design skill can develop a piece of instruction using few or no additional resources and with minimal front-end analysis. Similarly, there is no requirement to conduct formative and summative evaluation on the final materials (Gustafson and Branch 2002, p.16). A more experienced designer (or one with access to more resources) can also use this model in the design of a complex and widely-distributed learning program.

___________

References:

Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). What is instructional design? In R.A. Reiser & J. A. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 16-25). Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Kemp, J. E. (1985). The instructional design process. New York: Harper & Row.

Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. V. (2004). Design effective instruction, (4th Ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons

Prestera, Gus. (2002). Instructional Design Models [Internet]. Available from: http://www.effectperformance.com/sites/prestera/html/M4/L1%20-%20ISD/M4L1P1.htm#kemp Accessed: 3rd June 2009

–

Is this goodbye, Microsoft Flight Simulator?

Microsoft has decided to close its ACES Studio, which developed the simulator series. The ACES Studio was shut and its 150 staff laid off as part of 5,000 planned layoffs to control costs. Since 1982, Microsoft Flight Simulator (FS) has been one of the most popular serious games available. However, in my view, it is less a game and more an immersive virtual environment; it provides the user with a highly sophisticated and realistic human-computer interface (HCI) that enables “players” to learn according to a non-linear constructivist model.

For those who would assert that FS has little or nothing to do with learning and development, remember that early e-learning specifications emerged from the aerospace world: in the late 1980’s the Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) developed guidelines for the development, delivery, and evaluation of CBT, WBT, and related training technologies. The AICC specifications were designed to be general purpose (not necessarily aviation-specific) so that learning technology vendors could spread their costs across multiple markets and provide products needed by the aviation industry at a lower cost. This has resulted in AICC specifications gaining broad acceptance and relevance to non-aviation and aviation users alike long before IMS, SCORM, and QTI.

In FS, the user “flies” accurately-modeled aircraft in an open microworld. The flying area encompasses the whole of the real world (in varying levels of detail) and even (in FSX) low-earth orbit, including over 24,000 airports. Individually-detailed scenery can be found representing an ever-growing number of towns and cities, and geographical major landmarks. The latest versions of FS include complex weather simulation, as well as the ability to download real-time weather data. There is also a air traffic environment with interactive Air Traffic Control, player-flyable aircraft ranging from the WWI aircraft to the modern Boeing 777. In addition, the two latest versions of Microsoft Flight Simulator have a “kiosk mode”, which allows the application to be run in kiosks. It is the wide availability of upgrades and add-ons, both free and commercial, which give the simulator its great flexibility and scope.

As is the case in good e-learning design, introductory orientation (”flying lessons”) provides the player with a virtual instructor who, through a modular series of tasks and activities that are understood and responded to by learners within in the game context. This combines the elements of content and display to present the instructional content in a way that promotes learning through organized instructional resources, and a user interface that is not confusing, dissatisfying, or cognitively taxing. As well as interactive lessons, the simulator also provides missions, airport maps, navigation aids / GPS, and even aircraft checklists to enable the advanced user (and this can even include learner pilots with a very reasonable facsimile of the piloting experience.

To create this immersive world that meets the needs of players as learners, several interface attributes are be integrated into the HCI design. Generalizing from usability evaluations of eleven applications and about 250 usability problems Nielsen (1994, pp. 25-62), described these ten heuristics for usable design:

1. Visibility of system status
2. Match between system and the real world
3. User control and freedom
4. Consistency and standards
5. Error prevention
6. Recognition rather than recall
7. Flexibility and efficiency of use
8. Aesthetic and minimalist design
9. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors
10. Help and documentation

When considering the pedagogic value of microworlds I would agree with Roe, Pratt & Jones (2005) when they assert

We believe that this paradigm has much to teach developers of e-learning platforms and that reflection on the design of our microworlds can help to crystallize what those lessons are.

(Putting the learning back into e-learning, p.3)

The authors of the paper “distil” the characteristics of microworlds as a means of providing context and motivation for engaging with learning content:

So powerful is the FS platform that Microsoft turned in into a commercial off-the-shelf simulation platform called ESP. As they say themselves:

Microsoft ESP is a visual simulation platform that brings powerful, high-fidelity simulations to widely available, low-cost Microsoft Windows®-based PCs. Organizations that rely on Microsoft ESP can improve their workforce readiness more efficiently and cost-effectively than with traditional computer-based animation or simulation tools. Combined with its developer-friendly Software Development Kit (SDK), Microsoft ESP provides government and commercial entities and modeling and simulation specialists with an affordable, portable, and highly extensible platform for training and learning, decision support, and research and development modeling.

According to industry analyst James Governor the implications of this are “stunning:”

…once you know what the world actually looks like and behaves, you can begin to model changes to the system. What if we deforested this area? What if we removed all the natural predators from a particular marine ecology? What if we banned all car traffic from a city? What might the alternatives look like?

At the end of the 2006 movie Snakes on a Plane, a passenger whose only aviation training was playing video games successfully lands a jumbo jet. While this is of course a cinematic fantasy, you can be sure in the wake of the recent Hudson Miracle simulations like FS are being used to replicate the situation that the plane, crew, and passengers encountered to provide training that will maximize others’ chances of survival in such a scenario.

I might just fire up my copy of FS9 and take a trip from Newark myself…

Postscript:

One of the best things about writing an e-elearning blog is its flexibility of the medium to mould itself to accommodate new events.

These days, I’m regularly interrupting one series of posts to discuss new developments in another e-learning related topic: this is a consequence of the ongoing financial crisis. So, dear reader, I’ll return to Josh Bersin and the emergence of informal learning presently.
___________

References:

Governor, J. (2008) Living In De-material World: On Microsoft, Train SIM and the Virtual Everything. [Internet] Available from: http://www.redmonk.com/jgovernor/2008/09/25/living-in-de-material-world-on-microsoft-train-sim-and-the-virtual-everything/ Accessed 2 February 2009

Nielsen, J. (1994). Heuristic evaluation. In J. Nielsen & R. L. Mack (Eds.), Usability inspection methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Roe, C.P., Pratt, D., Jones, I. (2005) Putting the learning back into e-learning. In Proceedings of CERME4, Sant Felix de Guixols, Spain [Internet] Available from: http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wie/courses/degrees/docs/who/students/edrfae/publications/roe-pratt-jones_puttingthelearningbackintoelearning.pdf Accessed 2 February 2009

–

In E-Learning and the Science of Instruction (2003), Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E Mayer explore the research on the impact of media in e-learning across seven design principles:

• Multimedia
• Contiguity
• Modality
• Redundancy
• Coherence
• Personalization
• Practice Opportunities/Simulations

Clark and Mayer assert that broadly speaking

Learning results from designing learning materials with the right instructional methods regardless of how the information will be delivered [my italics]. …To help learners acquire new knowledge and skills, instructional methods including media elements such as sound, text, and graphics as well as learning aids such as practice exercises, must support human cognitive learning processes.

(p.2)

Regardless of the theoretical approach or instructional design used, learning happens in accordance with the capabilities of two memory components: working and long-term memory, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Effective e-learning supports critical psychological learning processes

Working memory is where ideas are generated and learning takes place. However, working memory has a very limited capacity – according to Miller (1956) working memory has the capacity to retain 7±2 chunks of information. When working memory fills with even limited amounts of information, its processing power diminishes rapidly.

Long-term memory has a vast capacity for information storage; it is a person’s knowledge and memory repository. However, long-term memory provides storage only – all the cognitive activity takes place in working memory. In learning, the goal is to create environments in which learners actively process new information in the working memory in ways that lead to storage in long-term memory. When needed, this information can be retrieved into working memory.

Positive learning outcomes require instructional methods that accommodate the limits of working memory and encourage processing of new information for storage in long-term memory.

(p.4)

The primary cognitive processes to be engaged include:

• Attention
• Management of load in working memory
• Rehearsal of new information in working memory that results in encoding in long-term memory
• Retrieval of new skills back into working memory when needed.

The authors suggest the following principles can be used to enhance the effectiveness of learning:

• Include both words and graphics as long as the graphics convey information that
  is being taught and are not merely decorative.
• Place corresponding words and graphics near each other.
• Present words as audio narration rather than onscreen text.
• Presenting words as both text and simultaneous audio narration can interfere with
  learning.
• Adding interesting, but unnecessary, material can interfere with learning.

With this in mind, how much practice do learners need? We know that skill improvement can continue over many practice sessions—although with diminishing returns. The greatest amount of learning occurs in the first few practice sessions. How much practice to include depends on the criticality of the skills you are building, and on the extent to which performance can improve on the job. For some tasks, such as landing an airplane, it’s critical that the first performance is highly effective.

In other cases, learners can continue to practice and improve on the job. [Ruth Clark's] recommendation is to adjust the amount of practice according to the criticality of the tasks and the cost benefits generated by additional practice opportunities.

(2007, p.9)

_________________________

References:

Clark, R. (2007). Leveraging multimedia for learning. Use instructional methods proven to align with natural learning processes [Internet] Available from: http://www.adobe.com/products/captivate/pdfs/captivate_leveraging_multimedia.pdf Accessed 23 May 2008

Clark, R. C. and R. E. Mayer (2003). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass
Pfeiffer.

Merrill, M. D. (2006a). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional Design Theories and Models III (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Merrill, M. D. (2006b). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall.

Miller, G. A. (1956) The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. The Psychological Review, 63(2), pp. 81-97

–

In E-Learning and the Science of Instruction (2003), Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E Mayer explore the research on the impact of media in e-learning across seven design principles:

• Multimedia
• Contiguity
• Modality
• Redundancy
• Coherence
• Personalization
• Practice Opportunities/Simulations

Clark and Mayer assert that broadly speaking

Learning results from designing learning materials with the right instructional methods regardless of how the information will be delivered [my italics]. …To help learners acquire new knowledge and skills, instructional methods including media elements such as sound, text, and graphics as well as learning aids such as practice exercises, must support human cognitive learning processes.

(p.2)

Regardless of the theoretical approach or instructional design used, learning happens in accordance with the capabilities of two memory components: working and long-term memory, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Effective e-learning supports critical psychological learning processes

Working memory is where ideas are generated and learning takes place. However, working memory has a very limited capacity – according to Miller (1956) working memory has the capacity to retain 7±2 chunks of information. When working memory fills with even limited amounts of information, its processing power diminishes rapidly.

Long-term memory has a vast capacity for information storage; it is a person’s knowledge and memory repository. However, long-term memory provides storage only – all the cognitive activity takes place in working memory. In learning, the goal is to create environments in which learners actively process new information in the working memory in ways that lead to storage in long-term memory. When needed, this information can be retrieved into working memory.

Positive learning outcomes require instructional methods that accommodate the limits of working memory and encourage processing of new information for storage in long-term memory.

(p.4)

The primary cognitive processes to be engaged include:

• Attention
• Management of load in working memory
• Rehearsal of new information in working memory that results in encoding in long-term memory
• Retrieval of new skills back into working memory when needed.

The authors suggest the following principles can be used to enhance the effectiveness of learning:

• Include both words and graphics as long as the graphics convey information that
  is being taught and are not merely decorative.
• Place corresponding words and graphics near each other.
• Present words as audio narration rather than onscreen text.
• Presenting words as both text and simultaneous audio narration can interfere with
  learning.
• Adding interesting, but unnecessary, material can interfere with learning.

With this in mind, how much practice do learners need? We know that skill improvement can continue over many practice sessions—although with diminishing returns. The greatest amount of learning occurs in the first few practice sessions. How much practice to include depends on the criticality of the skills you are building, and on the extent to which performance can improve on the job. For some tasks, such as landing an airplane, it’s critical that the first performance is highly effective.

In other cases, learners can continue to practice and improve on the job. [Ruth Clark's] recommendation is to adjust the amount of practice according to the criticality of the tasks and the cost benefits generated by additional practice opportunities.

(2007, p.9)

_________________________

References:

Clark, R. (2007). Leveraging multimedia for learning. Use instructional methods proven to align with natural learning processes [Internet] Available from: http://www.adobe.com/products/captivate/pdfs/captivate_leveraging_multimedia.pdf Accessed 23 May 2008

Clark, R. C. and R. E. Mayer (2003). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass
Pfeiffer.

Merrill, M. D. (2006a). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional Design Theories and Models III (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Merrill, M. D. (2006b). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall.

Miller, G. A. (1956) The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. The Psychological Review, 63(2), pp. 81-97

–

Now read on…

In yesterday’s post, and based on the work of Michael Molena, I suggested that the epitome of the Systems Approach, ADDIE, was less a development process and more a set of heuristics to facilitate instructional designers’ efforts to develop e-learning content. I also outlined M. David Merrill’s work to identify fundamental invariant principles of “good” instructional design, regardless of pedagogy. Merrill asserts that there is a core of consistent “Principles of Instruction” that we may use as the basis for content development regardless of the actual methodology used.

Merrill’s primary and central principle of instruction is task-centered learning. A task is an activity that represents a problem that may be encountered in a real-world situation. Learning objectives or samples of the types of problems learners will be able to solve at the end of the learning sequence may also substitute for a task. A progression through problems of increasing difficulty are used to scaffold the learning process into manageable tiers of difficulty. The courseware should relate to real world problems.

Learner guidance helps focus the learner’s attention on critical elements of the information and relate these critical elements to the portrayal. The learner guidance that enhances the demonstration is indicated by bullets.

(2006a, p.4)

Merrill recognizes three categories of classification that provide information and can be portrayed:

1. Kinds-of
2. How-to
3. What-happens

Kinds-of category

Concept classification occurs when learners must discriminate among members of two or more related categories of objects or events. An effective presentation/demonstration for concept classification (kinds-of) requires the following instructional activities.

1. Tell learners the name of each category or alternative procedure.
2. Show learners an example of each category.
3. Provide learners a definition for each category.
4. Show learners examples of each category.

How-to category
Procedure learning occurs when learners must carry out a series of steps. A presentation/demonstration for a procedure (how-to) involves the following instructional
activities:

1. Show learners a specific instance of the whole task.
2. Demonstrate each of the steps required to complete the whole task.
3. Show the consequence of each step.
4. Summarize the steps in the procedure and their sequence.

What-happens category
Process learning occurs when learners understand how some device works or the process underlying some phenomenon. A presentation/demonstration for a process (what-happens) involves the following instructional activities.

1. Demonstrate the process in a specific, real or simulated situation.
2. Repeat the demonstration for several increasingly complex scenarios.

In tomorrow’s post we shall examine principles for the effective use of media in this learning environment.

________________________

References:

Merrill, M. D. (2006a). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional Design Theories and Models III (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Merrill, M. D. (2006b). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall.

–

Now read on…

In yesterday’s post, and based on the work of Michael Molena, I suggested that the epitome of the Systems Approach, ADDIE, was less a development process and more a set of heuristics to facilitate instructional designers’ efforts to develop e-learning content. I also outlined M. David Merrill’s work to identify fundamental invariant principles of “good” instructional design, regardless pedagogic strategy. Merrill asserts that there is a core of consistent “Principles of Instruction” that we may use as the basis for content development regardless of the actual methodology used.

Merrill’s primary and central principle of instruction is task-centered learning. A task is an activity that represents a problem that may be encountered in a real-world situation. Learning objectives or samples of the types of problems learners will be able to solve at the end of the learning sequence may also substitute for a task. A progression through problems of increasing difficulty are used to scaffold the learning process into manageable tiers of difficulty. The courseware should relate to real world problems.

Learner guidance helps focus the learner’s attention on critical elements of the information and relate these critical elements to the portrayal. The learner guidance that enhances the demonstration is indicated by bullets.

(2006a, p.4)

Merrill recognizes three categories of classification that provide information and can be portrayed:

1. Kinds-of
2. How-to
3. What-happens

Kinds-of category

Concept classification occurs when learners must discriminate among members of two or more related categories of objects or events. An effective presentation/demonstration for concept classification (kinds-of) requires the following instructional activities.

1. Tell learners the name of each category or alternative procedure.
2. Show learners an example of each category.
3. Provide learners a definition for each category.
4. Show learners examples of each category.

How-to category
Procedure learning occurs when learners must carry out a series of steps. A presentation/demonstration for a procedure (how-to) involves the following instructional
activities:

1. Show learners a specific instance of the whole task.
2. Demonstrate each of the steps required to complete the whole task.
3. Show the consequence of each step.
4. Summarize the steps in the procedure and their sequence.

What-happens category
Process learning occurs when learners understand how some device works or the process underlying some phenomenon. A presentation/demonstration for a process (what-happens) involves the following instructional activities.

1. Demonstrate the process in a specific, real or simulated situation.
2. Repeat the demonstration for several increasingly complex scenarios.

In tomorrow’s post we shall examine principles for the effective use of media in this learning environment.

________________________

References:

Merrill, M. D. (2006a). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional Design Theories and Models III (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Merrill, M. D. (2006b). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall.

–

In his 2006 essay First Principles of Instruction, M. David Merrill reviewed a representative range of instructional design theories, models, and research, “from basic descriptive laws about learning to broad curriculum programs that concentrate on what is taught rather than on how to teach” (2006b, p.1). Based on his research, the author elicited and synthesized elements common to Instruction, and used these to assess the underlying principles of instruction. The author describes principles as “relationship[s] that [are] always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice” (2006a, p.1).

To be considered by Merrill, the principles he studied had to be

• Included in most of the instructional design theories reviewed
• Promote more effective, efficient, or engaging learning
• Supported by research
• General so that it applied to any delivery system or any instructional architecture (Clark 2003)
• Design-oriented

From this set of criteria, the author identified five principles of instruction.

1. The demonstration principle: Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration.
2. The application principle: Learning is promoted when learners apply the new knowledge.
3. The task-centered principle: Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task centered instructional strategy.
4. The activation principle: Learning is promoted when learners activate relevant prior knowledge or experience.
5. The integration principle: Learning is promoted when learners integrate their new knowledge into their everyday world.

1. The Demonstration Principle

Merrill asserts that principles are most appropriate for generalizable skills. These are skills that can be applied to two or more different specific situations. He asserts that the demonstration principle is most appropriate for three types of generalizable skill:

1. concept classification (kinds-of)
2. carrying out a procedure (how-to)
3. predicting consequences or finding faulted conditions in the execution of a process (what-happens).

A generalizable skill is represented by both information and portrayal. Information is general, inclusive, and applicable to many specific situations. Portrayal is specific, limited, and applicable to one case or a single situation. Information can be presented (tell) and recalled (ask). A portrayal can be demonstrated (show) and submitted to application (do).

The demonstration principle emphasizes the use of specific cases (portrayal). Merrill considers that lack of sufficient demonstration is a “common problem” (p.3) in much instruction. While the demonstration principle is strongly biased towards portrayal, effective and efficient instruction involves both presentation of information and demonstration with portrayal. Table 1 shows information and portrayal modalities that are consistent for each of the three categories of generalizable skill. A presentation and demonstration must be consistent if they are to support effective, efficient and engaging learning.

Table 1 Consistent Information and Portrayal for Categories of Learning

[click to enlarge]

More…

__________________

References:

Clark, R. C. (2003). Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement. Washington D.C., International Society for Performance Improvement.

Merrill, M. D. (1997). Instructional Strategies that Teach. CBT Solutions (Nov/Dec): 1-11. [Internet] Available from: http://cito.byuh.edu/merrill/text/papers/Consistency.PDF Accessed 24 May 2008.

Merrill, M. D. (2006a). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional Design Theories and Models III (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Merrill, M. D. (2006b). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall.

–

In his 2006 essay First Principles of Instruction, M. David Merrill reviewed a representative range of instructional design theories, models, and research, “from basic descriptive laws about learning to broad curriculum programs that concentrate on what is taught rather than on how to teach” (2006b, p.1). Based on his research, the author elicited and synthesized elements common to Instruction, and used these to assess the underlying principles of instruction. The author describes principles as “relationship[s] that [are] always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice” (2006a, p.1).

To be considered by Merrill, the principles he studied had to be

• Included in most of the instructional design theories reviewed
• Promote more effective, efficient, or engaging learning
• Supported by research
• General so that it applied to any delivery system or any instructional architecture (Clark 2003)
• Design-oriented

From this set of criteria, the author identified five principles of instruction.

1. The demonstration principle: Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration.
2. The application principle: Learning is promoted when learners apply the new knowledge.
3. The task-centered principle: Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task centered instructional strategy.
4. The activation principle: Learning is promoted when learners activate relevant prior knowledge or experience.
5. The integration principle: Learning is promoted when learners integrate their new knowledge into their everyday world.

1. The Demonstration Principle

Merrill asserts that principles are most appropriate for generalizable skills. These are skills that can be applied to two or more different specific situations. He asserts that the demonstration principle is most appropriate for three types of generalizable skill:

1. concept classification (kinds-of)
2. carrying out a procedure (how-to)
3. predicting consequences or finding faulted conditions in the execution of a process (what-happens).

A generalizable skill is represented by both information and portrayal. Information is general, inclusive, and applicable to many specific situations. Portrayal is specific, limited, and applicable to one case or a single situation. Information can be presented (tell) and recalled (ask). A portrayal can be demonstrated (show) and submitted to application (do).

The demonstration principle emphasizes the use of specific cases (portrayal). Merrill considers that lack of sufficient demonstration is a “common problem” (p.3) in much instruction. While the demonstration principle is strongly biased towards portrayal, effective and efficient instruction involves both presentation of information and demonstration with portrayal. Table 1 shows information and portrayal modalities that are consistent for each of the three categories of generalizable skill. A presentation and demonstration must be consistent if they are to support effective, efficient and engaging learning.

Table 1 Consistent Information and Portrayal for Categories of Learning

More…

__________________

References:

Clark, R. C. (2003). Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement. Washington D.C., International Society for Performance Improvement.

Merrill, M. D. (1997). Instructional Strategies that Teach. CBT Solutions (Nov/Dec): 1-11. [Internet] Available from: http://cito.byuh.edu/merrill/text/papers/Consistency.PDF Accessed 24 May 2008.

Merrill, M. D. (2006a). First Principles of Instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth & A. Carr (Eds.), Instructional Design Theories and Models III (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Merrill, M. D. (2006b). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall.

–